Wilderness Survival

In my opinion, the most important requirement for wilderness survival is 
self-discipline. No matter how strong you are, no matter how good your 
equipment, no matter how extensive your knowledge of wilderness survival 
techniques--all of these things will be worthless unless you have the 
self-discipline to use them most effectively. When alone in the wilderness, 
a great many factors tend to reduce a person's self-discipline at a time 
when it is needed most. One of these is fear.

Appropriate clothes make up another requirement of survival in the 
wilderness areas that are often neglected. To be naked on the desert would 
kill you faster than to be caught there without water. To be caught in a 
blizzard without proper clothing would be much worse than to be without 
food. In rocky, mountainous terrain good boots or shoes are the most 
important survival equipment I can think of. In climbing over rocks and up 
canyon walls, it is often necessary to support the body's weight on a rocky 
ledge only an inch wide. The human foot does not have the amount of strength  
required unless it is assisted by the strong flat sole of a shoe or a boot.

The average city resident usually assumes that he owns some warm clothing. 
He has a winter coat and one or more winter suits. If a bit old fashioned, 
he may even have a suit of long underwear tucked away in some dresser drawer. 
The suburbanite may own a pair of boots that he wears three or four times a 
year to shovel snow out of the driveway. A simple experiment would convince 
the average city resident that his warmest clothing is completely inadequate 
for cold weather survival conditions. Such a person could put on his very
warmest clothing, in fact all of the clothing he could manage to get on and
then spend just one average winter from sundown to sunup standing around in 
his own front yard. If the temperature dropped even to 25 or 30 degrees above 
zero he would probably be chilled to the bone and numb with cold long before 
morning arrived.

Good clothing for outdoors wear is expensive. Most of us will have to 
compromise between what we would like to have and what we can afford to buy.

In open country that is hot and dry, the body must be protected from the 
sun's rays, both direct and reflected. This calls for tightly woven loosely 
fitting clothes with a good wide brimmed hat. At night, it must be 
remembered, the temperature may fall considerably in such climates. Warmer 
clothing may be required for night travel or some suitable cover that will 
provide warmth while sleeping.

In hot humid climates, the clothing should also be loose and tightly woven. 
This will help protect against insects and will minimize snagging of the 
cloth on twigs and thorns

In cold climates or where cold weather can be anticipated, a number of layers 
of lighter clothing are to be preferred over one or two very heavy garments. 
Several layers of light or medium weight woolen clothing are recommended with 
a wind proof outer cover. This permits air to be trapped between the 
different layers and it enables the wearer to regulate his temperature easily 
by adding or removing single pieces of clothing. A belt or drawstring around 
the waist helps to regulate ventilation.

It is especially difficult to keep the feet warm in cold climates. The weight 
of the body compresses much of the air out of any insulating material under 
the foot and the movement of the foot prevents the air from remaining still. 
Furthermore, a certain amount of perspiration always forms. In cold weather 
this goes as water vapor toward the outer layer and escapes to a greater or 
lesser extent depending on waterproofing qualities of the boots. Since most
boots are at least slightly waterproof, a certain amount of moisture collects
inside them in the form of frost. In the most extreme cold, the temperature
of boots themselves is so cold that the moisture condenses inside the foot 
gear no matter how permeable the boots are. Much of this frost forms in the 
insoles and outer pair of socks. Therefore, extra precautions must be taken 
to insure adequate warmth for the feet. Heavy woolen socks with a cushion 
sole are well worth the expense involved.

Insoles are essential to cold weather footwear for they provide added 
insulation in the soles, thus preventing the cold from coming up from below 
and absorbing moisture from the feet. Two pairs of insoles should be 
available for each pair of boots. The two pairs are used altenately, one pair 
being dried while the other is being used. When insoles are damp, they lose 
much of their insulating quality. Therefore, they should be alternated 
frequently and dried at every opportunity. Sun and air will help dry them, 
even when the temperature is below freezing.

Remember that several pairs of medium weight socks are warmer than a single 
extremely thick pair because more air can be trapped between the layers. Also 
keep in mind that when two or more pairs of socks are worn at the same time 
the outer pair should be larger so that the feet will not be cramped and 
circulation restricted. During a halt in travel, or at the end of the day, 
change damp socks as soon as possible. In cold weather damp socks are 
dangerous because of the possibility of frostbite. If they become really wet, 
blisters on the feet often result regardless of the temperature.

Remember that inside clothing should be kept loose, clean and dry. Outer 
clothing should be windproof and water repellant. Avoid outer clothing that 
has a shine to it or which rustles when moved. The rustle of stiff clothing 
or a glimmer of moonlight on shiny fabric could give away your position when 
you are trying to move silently at night.

Another thing sure to be found in most books on survival is a list of 
personal equipment for backpacking, cooking, camping, etc. As one sits at 
home and contemplates the needs of living in the wild, such a list can grow 
and grow and grow. Many times in the past I have watched people start out   
training maneuvers heavily laden with all sorts of equipment. At every stop
they will go through their pack and eliminate a few items, leaving them 
neatly piled beside some tree to be retrieved on the way back. It is simply  
amazing how much equipment you can do without after walking fifteen or twenty 
miles over rugged terrain.

In making an advance selection of material which you may want for such 
purposes, keep always in mind that you may have to live with this gear for 
months at a time and carry everything that you own on your own back and in 
your pockets. Weight is the most vital factor to consider in arranging your  
equipment. Also remember that the cheapest gear is never a bargain but the 
most expensive equipment is not necessarily the best. Shop carefully with the 
factors of weight and durability always in mind.

Several years ago the Minutemen Organization published a list of recommended 
equipment for backpacking and survival situations. Now, after having spent 
several months under such circumstances myself, I have reviewed this list to 
see what changes I would make if I had to do it all again.

The first item to consider is the pack or rucksack. Although they are 
manufactured in many varieties and some are considered preferable to others, 
it is best if each individual does his own research to find out which pack is 
best suited to his or her needs. Special consideration should be given to 
size, weight, comfort, flexibility and so on.

A pack used with a pack frame will carry more weight much more comfortably 
than a pack without a frame. These frames come in various sizes and should be 
purchased accordingly. If you are 5'8" and under, you should purchase a 
"medium" frame. Those over 5'8" and under 6' should purchase a "large" frame. 
Those over 6' should purchase an extra large frame. Most frames come equipped 
with padded shoulder straps but if yours does not, such pads may be ordered  
separately. Of course, aluminum frames weigh less than those made from wood, 
steel or fiberglass. Unfortunately, many of them will not stand up under a 
heavy load or over a prolonged period of heavy use. If you purchase an 
aluminum backpack frame, examine all the joints carefully. Remember that 
aluminum metal is rather soft and will tear easily. If fastened together with
bolts or rivets, they may easily pull through the holes in the metal frame. 
Another point for special attention is the fasteners that connect the frame 
to the cloth straps. Oftentimes these will be made of rather small gauge wire 
simply bent into shape and they are sure to spring loose at the first 
opportunity.

The next item to consider is your sleeping bag because it takes up more space 
and will weigh more than any other single item you are apt to carry. It is 
very easy to underestimate the quality of sleeping bag that is necessary to 
stay warm in even mildly cold weather. Keep in mind that it takes one and 
one-half inches of insulation to keep you warm at 40 degrees Fahrenheit and 
another 1/4 inch in thickness for every ten degrees colder you go. In other 
words to stay reasonably warm at zero degrees will require a sleeping bag 
approximately two and one-half inches thick. This statement is generally true 
regardless of the type of insulation your particular bag may contain. The 
synthetic fibers, such as dacron are virtually as good as goose down so far 
as their insulating qualities are concerned. The difference is that a two and 
one-half inch thick bag of goose down will weigh considerably less than a 
dacron bag of equal thickness. You should try to buy a bag with insulation 
not less than two and one-half inches thick while keeping the total weight of 
the bag at about five pounds.

Clothing has already been mentioned and the first aid kit will be in another
file. This leaves a long list of items that might be labeled "miscellaneous." 
Include a nylon cord not more than 20 or 30 feet. A climbing rope is nice to 
have if several members together are working their way through mountainous 
terrain but unless some definite need is anticipated, I would leave such 
heavy and cumbersome items at home.

Include such food items as these: dehydrated meals for at least 14 days, 
sugar, vitamins, and an abundant amount of halazone tablets. The dehydrated 
foods are fine so far as weight is concerned but I am more convinced than 
ever that cooking must be kept at an absolute minimum. There are times 
perhaps when it may be essential to cook certain vegetable items to guard 
against toxic substances or to cook animals that have been captured and might 
be infected by some disease. Except for these necessary occasions, even the 
smallest fire places such a traveler in great danger of being discovered by 
the enemy. For these reasons, leave coffee, tea, and boullion cubes at home
along side your cigarettes and pipe tobacco. Sugar can best be carried in the 
form of candy that cannot be spilled or be easily ruined by moisture. 
Ordinary foods contain all of the salt that a person normally needs for good  
health, and pepper of course, is one of those niceties of civilization that 
is best left behind also.

Of those foods that are readily available, the best in my opinion for 
emergency survival rations would include canned meats and cheese, peanut 
butter mixed with sugar packed in plastic containers, and various types of 
candy that are customarily sold in small pieces and in plastic bags. All of 
these items are very low in water and therefore contain a high proportion of 
nutritive value, and they can be eaten with knife and fingers out of the 
container in which they are carried. For the person who may be required to 
flee for his life at any time, survival foods beyond the amount he can carry  
in his pack are a very dubious investment.

I used to carry several items for cooking such as a nesting set of cooking  
utensils, heat tabs or sterno, knife, fork and spoon, plate, cup and scouring 
pad. Of these, I would make do with my canteen, canteen cup and a good 
hunting knife. Such cooking as may be essential can be done in the canteen 
cup. If you know where to look, tinder is always available for starting 
fires. Sand can be used to clean your canteen cup thus eliminating the 
scouring pad. Under desperate circumstances, good table manners do not 
justify the extra weight of a fork and spoon.

Other items usually listed that I would eliminate include candles, shovel, 
ax, wire, rubber tubing, folding saw, pliers, wirecutter, screwdriver and 
file. Items which I would retain include matches in a waterproof container 
(I'd carry along a lot of these); a flashlight is good so long as the 
batteries will last; a sharpening stone is worth the weight; compass, maps, 
ground cloth, thread, safety pins, needles and extra buttons are well 
worth it. While they weigh very little a few fish hooks, line and sinkers 
might be included though I have grave doubts as to their practical value. 
Except in the high mountains I would say that a good insect repellent is 
worth its weight in gold.

A small towel or washcloth has many uses that justify the weight. Soap and 
toothbrush are essential. For men, a razor and blades may be necessary to 
avoid looking conspicuous on those occasions when contact with other 
civilians is unavoidable. For women, tubeless tampons and ziplock bags for
disposal purposes. Other desirable miscellaneous items include a small 
magnifying glass, paper and pencil.

The dangers of noisily shooting or trapping wild animals while trying to 
evade hostile forces is illogical. In this regard a good slingshot, boomarang 
or blow-gun with poisoned arrows would be worthwhile in killing small game 
silently if the opportunity presents itself. In capturing wild game, beware 
of those animals that are caught too easily. They may be diseased and 
therefore, unsafe to eat without cooking.

Plant foods (See end of file for list of descriptive books) will often 
constitute a major part of the survival diet. The reasons are basic and 
clear:

     1) Plant food is more abundant than fish, meat or eggs under most 
        circumstances  
     2) Plant food is easy to obtain without equipment  
     3) Plant food can be obtained silently without arousing the enemy  
     4) A vegetarian diet is usually rich in vitamins, rarely being 
        accompanied by dietary deficiencies such as meat and fish diets 
        sometimes produce.

The biggest difficulty with the vegetable foods is their low caloric content. 
Large quantities must be consumed in order to meet the energy needs of the 
person that is engaged in hard work or considerable exercise. Generally  
speaking, the seeds, fruit, rapidly growing sprouts and roots have more food 
value than other parts of the plant.

More than 300,000 kinds of plants grow wild in various parts of the world. A 
comparatively small percentage of them are poisonous. Many more, however, are 
simply not digestible by human beings. The *Army Survival Manual FM 21-76*
(See end of file for source) devotes over 100 pages to descriptions of 
various plants that are edible but only a small percentage of those described 
are widely found in the United States. Rather than waste time looking for 
plants that you know are edible, it is better, in actual survival circum-
stances, to determine which of the plants you find growing abundantly right 
where you're at may be safe to eat.

Avoid plants that have a bad smell or seem to be covered with stinging 
hairlike projections. If given a choice, select those plants for further 
testing that bear a resemblance to ordinary domestic vegetables. When you 
find what looks like an edible plant, subject it to the "taste test." Take a 
small amount into your mouth, chew it and then spit it out. Then watch for 
symptoms. If it tastes all right and there are no symptoms, go ahead and 
swallow a pea sized quantity. If the taste is really disagreeable, don't eat 
it. Remember that grapefruit is sour and lettuce is often rather bitter so an 
unpleasant taste does not, of itself mean poison. A burning, nauseating or 
bitter taste is a warning of possible danger. Continue with progressively 
larger quantities over a couple of days until you are sure it does not affect 
you adversely. A small quantity of a poisonous food is not likely to be fatal 
or even dangerous. One exception to this are mushrooms. Although many fungi 
are edible, they are generally not worth the risk involved as their 
nutritional content is very low.

Some plants are poisonous raw, but safe after cooking. The cooking removes 
the poison or converts it chemically. When security precautions permit, cook 
all unknown foods. In the tropics and warm climates, there is a real danger 
from bacteria that may be growing on the outside of such foods, especially in 
areas of human habitation. Cooking will take care of this hazard also.

Don't waste time taste testing plant foods that are rare or difficult to get. 
Make sure there is a worthwhile supply available before testing. Also, just 
because a small amount of plant food passes the test, don't assume that you 
can eat unlimited amounts with impunity. Large amounts of ripe coconut for 
example, can cause disabling diarrhea. There are some obvious exceptions 
(such as dandelions, wild figs, bread fruit and papaya) but generally 
speaking it's best to avoid eating plants that have milky juice.

The *Army Survival Manual FM 21-76* must be considered the basic work on 
techniques of physical survival under adverse conditions. It is divided into 
seven chapters. Chapter one deals with the general problems of individual and 
group survival, health and first aid. Chapter two deals with navigation and 
cross country travel. Chapter three deals with the problems of finding water 
and making it safe to drink. Chapter four deals with food, both vegetable and 
animal and the various means of obtaining these foods in wilderness areas. 
Chapter five deals with firemaking and cooking. Chapter six deals with the 
survival problems that are to be found in special areas such as the arctic, 
desert areas, jungle or tropical areas. Chapter seven deals with special 
hazards to survival, such as poisonous plants, dangerous animals, etc.  
The Manual is to be read carefully at home and then left behind with all 
those many items that are not really worth their weight to carry with you.

For the experienced sportsman, properly equipped and in the proper season of 
the year, wilderness survival for a period of a few days or weeks is no 
problem at all. Unfortunately, we have no guarantee that a communist 
occupation of our country will last a few days or weeks. Suppose it lasts 
twenty or thirty years? When traveling continuously over rough, rocky ground, 
the best pair of boots will only last two or three months.

In his book, *Mountainman Crafts and Skills,* David Montgomery gives us 
directions for tanning the hide of a deer and using this to make Indian type 
moccasins. This sounds very good but there are certain probems involved. If 
you are being hunted by police forces or military personnel, you may not want 
to risk the sound of a rifle shot to kill the deer in the first place. Of 
course he also shows us how to make numerous traps by which we might catch 
the deer without making such noise. Once again however, a hunted man would 
find it very risky to set a trap and then return hours or days later to see 
if he had caught any game. If his enemies found the trap first, they would no 
doubt have a nice reception party waiting for him at his return. In any case, 
a shoe or boot with a good stiff sole is absolutely necessary for rock 
climbing or extensive travel over rocky terrain.

Various survival books devote considerable space to the selection of edible 
plants as opposed to plants that may be poisonous. Here again, we have 
problems. Many of the plants shown in these books are actually quite rare in 
wilderness areas. In Norborne, Missouri, I have a yard full of dandelions but 
I did not see one single dandelion in all of the Gila wilderness area.

Also to be considered is the fact that most plant foods are quite low in 
calorie content. If you want to go on a reducing diet, spinach, cabbage, 
green beans and brussel sprouts will all help you lose weight. These domestic 
vegetables are quite nutritious compared with most green vegetables that you 
might find growing wild. A guerrilla fighter or fugitive who is being sought 
by his enemies will generally be required to keep on the move. It will not be 
possible to spend all day hunting out particular plants that you know to be 
edible, picking the limited quantities that may be available and then cooking 
them in order to obtain the maximum nutritive value from them.

Building a fire can be dangerous. Smoke can be seen a long way off. In the 
winter time especially, even a very small smokeless fire will cause moisture 
in the cold air to condense and form a conspicuous cloudlike column rising 
high in the air and visible for a considerable distance. Enemy forces are 
certain to investigate any suspicious source of heat that may be located in a 
remote area during their occupation. In one day's time, a single aircraft 
equipped with modern heat detecting devices can search an area of several 
hundred square miles. In fact, Che Guevara's Bolivian adventure came to an 
end shortly after his guerrilla band was located by just this technique.

The danger of using a fire complicates both the water problem and the housing 
problem. Boiling is the best and surest way to purify contaminated water. 
Lacking a fire, one must depend on water purification tablets. Thus these 
tablets should be one of the MUST items in your survival kit. Except in the 
very coldest weather, a fairly primitive shelter will keep you from freezing 
to death if you have a small fire burning. Without the fire however, much 
warmer clothing and better shelter will be needed.

I do not mean to imply that these books are without value. To the contrary, 
they deserve careful study by every patriot who might find himself forcibly 
deprived of the comforts of civilization. The point to remember however, is 
that these books were written with a situation in mind which may be con-
siderably different from the circumstances which American patriots could face 
in time of anarchy, war, enemy occupation or government tyranny.
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Book Sources of more information:

Army *Survival* Manual FM 21-76 $9.95
   Updated (March 1986) FM 21-76 $19.95
*Can You Survive* $10.00
*Mountainman Crafts and Skills* $16.95
*Survival: A Manual That Could Save Your Life* $16.00
*Prepare Today: Survive Tomorrow* $13.95
*Edible? Incredible: Pondlife* $7.95
*Common Edible Plants of the West* $4.95
*Edible and Useful Wild Plants of the U.S. and Canada* $6.95
*The Mushroom Manual* $8.95
*Know Your Poisonous Plants* $6.95 [excellent]
*A Field Guide To Animal Tracking in North America* $13.95 [excellent]

Add $1.50 for first book, and .50 each additional book for postage.
Send for FREE Wilderness Skills Catalog.
Send for FREE Hard Core Survival Skills Catalog.
Gaddis Publications, PO Box 411476, Los Angeles, CA 90041
-= END